Various studies have assessed animal welfare by analysing how behaviour is affected by environmental and human-related factors. Nevertheless, the combined effects of these factors are poorly researched. This study assessed for the first time the integrated impact of environmental conditions and visitor and caregiver presence on the behaviour of a pair of zoo- housed Asian small-clawed otters. We collected data across 14 sampling days from July to September 2020. We video-recorded the otters’ behaviours using continuous focal animal sampling (42 h of observation/subject). We found that the otters only performed species-specific behaviours and mainly experienced positive welfare states. However, they dedicated less time to locomotion, food-related and affiliative behaviours, and engaged more in vigilance compared to previous studies carried out in captive settings. Interactions between the otters and visitors/caregivers were limited and mostly associated with neutral or positive behavioural responses. Visitor presence and background noise did not affect behaviour. Time of day and animal identity influenced locomotion, vigilance, time spent out of sight, juggling, and visitor–otter interactions. Our results provided meaningful information to improve husbandry practices and highlighted the need to conduct multivariate analysis to better assess the welfare of animals under human care.

Governmental and industry representatives have repeatedly claimed that Aotearoa New Zealand leads the world on animal welfare, largely based on an assessment by global animal protection charity World Animal Protection (WAP). New Zealand’s leading ranking rested primarily on favourable comparisons of its animal welfare legislation with that of 50 other nations, within WAP’s 2014 Animal Protection Index. Unfortunately, however, review of welfare problems extant within the farming of meat chickens and laying hens, pigs, cows and sheep, reveals the persistence of systemic welfare compromises within most New Zealand animal farming systems. These are contrary to good ethics, to our duty of care toward these animals, to the wishes of domestic and international consumers, and to the interests of New Zealand’s animal production industries, which make an unusually large contribution to New Zealand’s national economy. Accordingly, and despite progress to date, this study finds that significant further resource investment and policy reform within the field of animal welfare are clearly warranted within New Zealand.